French Perceptions of European Defence and Türkiye’s Role

From Ally to Strategic Competitor?

French President Emmanuel Macron has been calling since 2017 for a relaunch of the European debate on strategic autonomy – in response to Brexit, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and persistent doubts about Washington’s commitment to NATO – and has positioned France to play a leading role. The debate about Türkiye’s role in a new European security architecture, in particular in the framework of Türkiye’s membership of NATO, is particularly salient for France as the two countries share a long record of close economic, political and cultural ties. However, the past ten years (and Macron’s presidency in particular) have seen a succession of crises and tensions in bilateral relations. These have led to a shift in the French perception of Türkiye, from an ally to a strategic competitor. As a consequence, even if the tension seems to have lessened recently, there has been little or no discussion in France about Türkiye’s potential role in the European security architecture.

CATS Network Paper, No. 19, 19 June 2025, 41 Pages

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Despite the EU: Spain’s Security and Defence Cooperation with Turkey

This report examines Spain-Turkey relations within the broader debate on strengthening European security and defence cooperation. It explores their bilateral ties, engagement with the EU and NATO, and draws on open-source materials and interviews with 21 Spanish policy-makers, analysts, and institutional representatives. The findings indicate that Spain and Turkey have cultivated a stable and pragmatic partnership that has been largely unaffected by Turkey’s tensions with other Western allies. Defence cooperation has become a key pillar, with geographical distance acting as a facilitator rather than a barrier. Overall, Spain sees Turkey as an ally in balancing NATO’s strategic focus on order for the “Southern Flank” to receive due attention. Past episodes of solidarity in times of crisis have reinforced ties. Both countries are actively exploring greater collaboration at all levels – between governments, armed forces, and private companies. Despite Spain’s positive stance, it lacks the leverage to shape EU-Turkey cooperation in security and defence, prioritizing bilateral engagement instead. At best, Spain could play a role in fostering dialogue and confidence-building, thus buffering persistent tensions and keeping alternative avenues for cooperation open.

CATS Network Paper, No. 18, 17 June 2025, 46 Pages

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Poland’s Security and Turkey

Apart and Yet Together

This report offers an analysis of the relationship between Poland and Turkey. It is structured into three sections. The first section, “Re-organizing European Security Amidst Geopolitical Tensions”, explores Poland’s perspective on European security, examining the factors that have influenced Poland’s approach: the imperative to avoid a “strategic vacuum”, establishing security through NATO and the EU, and reinforcing the Eastern Flank. The first section concludes by considering the future direction of Poland’s strategic focus.The second section, “Security and Defence Relations with Turkey”, delves into the historical narratives and political perceptions that shape the interactions between Poland and Turkey, as well as their economic and social connections. It also examines the security and defence cooperation between the two countries, highlighting Poland’s increasing interest in Turkish-made military equipment.The report finishes with conclusions and recommendations. It suggests that the relationship between Poland and Turkey offers insights for EU-Turkey defence cooperation. They include utilizing cooperation to anchor Turkey in Western defence infrastructure, as well as establishing closer coordination vis-à-vis the security future of Ukraine and the Black Sea Basin. 

CATS Network Paper, No. 16, 11 June 2025, 32 Pages

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Omnipresent Yet Overlooked?

The Role of Turkey in German Thinking about European Security

From the German perspective, two factors hinder deeper security policy cooperation with Turkey: the general public scepticism towards all things military and a negative image of Turkey, whose current government is perceived as deeply undemocratic and anti-Western. Nevertheless, by approving arms exports for the Turkish Navy and withdrawing its veto against the delivery of Eurofighters, the outgoing Scholz government initiated a cautious turnaround in its policy towards Turkey. German diplomats are also open to greater security cooperation with Turkey. The Defence Ministry has long maintained that armaments cooperation should serve as a means of advancing a more strategically oriented German foreign policy – an approach it considers equally relevant to its relationship with Turkey. The CDU-led new government will further strengthen this trend.

CATS Network Paper, No. 15, 27 May 2025, 46 Pages

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Turkey’s Role in Consolidating European Security: Challenges and Opportunities

Any redesign of the European security architecture would need to consider multiple challenges including the role of Turkey, which is a pivotal and militarily-capable NATO ally. Despite mutual concerns between Turkey and its European allies, the security of Europe and Turkey is intertwined. Both would benefit from acting in synergy. There are several obstacles to navigate, but the imperative for Turkey and Europe to meet shared security challenges together is decisively strong. The trick lies in finding the right way forward. Enhanced dialogue between Turkey and the EU on shared security challenges would be a step in the right direction. The potential for real traction is in bilateral engagements involving willing European actors. This combined effort would nurture a better atmosphere in relations and increase the chances of a mutually beneficial engagement that would make both Turkey and Europe safer.

CATS Network Paper, No. 14, 05 May 2025, 42 Pages

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